Earthquake Seismology

Moment tensors, seismic moment, and the Gutenberg-Richter law characterise earthquake sources and their statistical recurrence.

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Electrical Methods

Resistivity surveys and IP measurements map subsurface conductivity by injecting current and measuring potential differences.

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Geodesy

Reference ellipsoids, geoid undulations, GPS trilateration, and InSAR measure Earth's shape, gravity field, and crustal deformation.

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Geostatistics

Variograms, kriging, and sequential simulation quantify spatial uncertainty in subsurface property estimation.

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Gravity Methods

Bouguer anomalies and gravitational potential inversion reveal subsurface density contrasts.

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Ground-Penetrating Radar

Electromagnetic wave propagation and reflection imaging reveal shallow subsurface structure with centimetre-scale resolution.

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Magnetic Methods

Total-field anomaly maps, Euler deconvolution, and susceptibility inversion image subsurface magnetic sources.

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Potential Field Theory

Laplace's equation, harmonic functions, and spherical harmonics underpin gravity and magnetic field modelling.

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Seismic Tomography

Ray-path integrals and least-squares inversion map 3D velocity structure inside the Earth.

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Seismic Waves

P and S waves, the elastic wave equation, and Snell's law govern how seismic energy travels through the Earth.

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